Summary

World History Class 07

THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:06 PM)

OTHER REASONS FOR THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (5:12 PM)

(1) Monarchy of France was called the Bourbons, a discredited monarchy.
They were interested in enjoying only absolute power and not in the welfare of the people or the subjects.
A discredited monarchy because it wasted the resources of France and was defeated in all the wars against Austria and England.
(2) The administrative system of France was rotten to the core.
France had no rule of law, and class differed from area to area.
(3) No uniform currency, weights, and measures.
(4) The evil practices in the political system were 'Simony and Plurality.'
Simony means purchasing and selling the public office.
Plurality means holding more than one office at a time.
Financial reasons for the revolution :
Problems with the French economy itself- an economy with extreme inequalities.
(1) The rich and well-off sections were exempted from taxes.
Whereas the middle class and the poor peasantry were made to bear the maximum burden.
(2) Revenue Farming system, a system of deciding revenue collection rights in a locality gave scope for maximum exploitation.
(3) Feudal class never accepted development.
Role of philosophers :
France was the country with the maximum philosophers of the time making it the center for their activity or teaching.
(1) Voltaire was the first among the philosophers called King Voltaire for his proficiency.
He was the first to question the moral and ethical rights of the church in collecting taxes from the people.
He appealed to human reason and faculties of judgment in understanding the realities by drawing a comparative study between the royal absolutism of the French monarchy and democracy in England.
He caught the imagination of the French people.
He wrote the famous''Letters on English''
(2) Montesquieu in his famous thesis ''The spirit of Laws'' questioned the purpose of the law and advocated for the ''Theory of Separation of Powers.''
For him, the law must address itself as the problem of the society than reflecting the customs and traditions.
(3) Rousseau was the most influential thinker and philosopher in the French Revolution in his famous ''Social Contract'', Rousseauemphatically declared that the ultimate right resides with the people in either creating or destroying political institutions.
He called it Popular Sovereignty or General Will.
There Rousseau was a Democrat.
He was equally a socialist when he questioned inequalities in society in his famous text "A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality.''
Rousseau was a humanist when he talked about absolute freedom and liberty.
(4) Denis Diderot wrote ''Encyclopedia'' in which he gave new definitions for social and political ideas and institutions in the light of Enlightenment.
(5) French economists called Physiocrats also generated new ideas.
They opposed the concentration of wealth and monopolies.
For them, everyone must have equal opportunity and accessibility to the resources of the country.
In other words, they also supported private property.
However, the revolution was not the result of philosophers or their teachings.
Revolution would have taken place even without philosophers as revolutionary conditions were satisfied already as France was in a deep financial crisis and crops failed for 3 consecutive years.
For the French peasantry, it was a do-or-die struggle.
No philosopher asked for revolution.
(3) Revolution had not started with the educated middle class but rather with an illiterate mob that was not influenced by philosophers.
However, the role of philosophers can not be denied.
They were not a cause for revolution but they influenced the course of the revolution with their ideas.
The immediate cause for the revolution :
It was Emperor Louis XVI's summon of Estate General, the French parliament.

WORK OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (5:26 PM)

It was the first stage of the French Revolution. (1789-1791)
Estate General, the legislative assembly of the French Parliament was summoned after 175 years.
The third estate, the Estate of Commons demanded converting Estates General into National Assembly, a single-chambered assembly and vote by head not by estate.
When the demands were rejected, the revolutionaries took an oath on the tennis court.
Mobs entered the city of Paris creating a violent atmosphere.
On 14th July 1789, the fall of Bastille had taken place.
Estates General was converted into National Assembly.
The work of the National Assembly was:
(1) To draft a new constitution for France.
(2) It recommended the evolution of feudalism and feudal privileges.
(3) The practice of buying and selling public offices ended.
(4) The lands of the church were nationalized.
(5) The monumental work of the national assembly was drafting the ''Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen.''
It borrowed the concept from the American Revolution.
At the same time inspired by Rousseau.
In the new constitution drafted Montesquieu's Theory of Separation of Powers was implemented dividing power between the legislature, executive, and judiciary.
New Constitution:
(1) A new legislative assembly with 745 members was provided to be elected for 2 years.
(2) King was declared the chief executive and was given suspensive veto power.
(3) For judicial reforms, the national assembly postponed the issue, however, it provided for uniformity in the application of laws.
(4) France was divided into 83 districts of equal size called departments further divided into cantons and communes.
(5) Officers to be appointed.
(6) To overcome the financial crises, a minted currency called Assignnats was introduced against the nationalized landed property as the guarantee.
(7) Church was insubordinate to the state.
All church officers were to be appointed and paid salaries.
Church of France to maintain its identity from the control of pop.
Critical assessment of the work assembly :
It was not completed by the revolutionary slogans- ''Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.''
Work was done:
(1) People were divided into Active citizens and Passive citizens going against the spirit of equality.
2/3rd of the French population was eliminated from the decision-making process.
(2) Revolution offended the sentiments of French people, who were majority Catholics, and the priestly classes.
(3) The minted currency Assignauts finally led to inflation.
However, the national assembly did have great achievements to its credit.
Achievements:
(1) Age-old feudalism was abolished.
(2) A sense of social equality was provided.
(3) Human rights were guaranteed.
(4) Public offices were opened for merit and talent.
(5) The unjust tax system ended and tax according to the ability became the guiding principle.
Work of the national convention (1791-1795) :
On September 21st, 1792, National Convention was officially formed.
The main purpose of the convention was to protect the French Revolution from its internal and external threats.
It came to power to save France from the monarchies of Europe represented by Austria, Prussia, and Sardinia.
It defeated the coalition of monarchies, saved France, and introduced a series of reforms:
(1) It made France a republic.
It ended the monarchy and France emerged as the First Republican state in Europe and 21st September 1792.
(2) The concept of Nationalism took a concrete shape for the first time under National Convention.
France became the first European country to have a full-fledged Nationalist army consisting of only the French.
(3) Language French was declared the official language of France.
(4) A new calendar was introduced for the entire of France with 3 weeks in a month.
(5) Slavery was banned not only in France but also in French colonies.
(6) Women were given the Right to Property for the first time.
(7)Law of Primogeniture was set aside.
All children are declared equally eligible for inheriting property.
(8) No criminal punishment for defaulters, providing relief to workers and the peasantry.
Radical reforms of the National Convention were:
(1) Land was distributed to the landless.
For the first time right to have property became a reality in France.
(2)Law of Maxims was passed under which essential goods were provided for every family at subsidized rates.
These reforms appeared to make France heading toward Socialism.
Undoubtedly France became the first country to implement the principles of Socialism, though not by conviction.
A new constitution was drafted for France called the Directorate with 5 directors for internal administration and to deal with external challenges.
The negative side of the National Convention was:
(1) The 'Reign of Terror was created in the name of saving the revolution.
Under the National Convention, the revolution became a bloodthirsty revolution.
It caused a tremendous loss in terms of men and materials.
What prevailed in France in the name of revolution was virtually anarchy.
(2) Executing the royal family was a grave mistake committed by the revolutionaries.
It continued to create a constant conflict between France and its neighboring countries.
In other words, a struggle between the forces of Revolution and Reaction started in European history.
(3) It was an irresponsible act on the part of the National Convention in forming a directorate of 5 directors without providing them with clear direction regarding the principles and policies of the administration.
In a way, National Convention itself gave scope for Napoleon to capture power.

WHY REVOLUTION IN FRANCE ONLY? (5:56 PM)

Conditions satisfied from the beginning in France making France the first European country to experience a revolution:
(1) French feudal class never discharged their duties.
It was a class that remained indifferent and irresponsible.
Moreover, it was highly exploitative.
They were responsible for a revolutionary situation and continued to maintain France as a society with extreme inequalities.
(2) French monarchy was an absolute monarchy.
Whereas monarchies of other countries were benevolent monarchies, enjoyed power, and discharged administration in the interest of the public.
(3) Next to England, France was the country with a dynamic educated middle class.
(4) France, was the country with the maximum philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment.
(5) France, was the country that faced the worst financial crisis.
(6) Consecutive failure of crops for 3 years was the actual factor for the revolution.
In no other country, it so happened.
(7) The location of the capital city Paris in the heart of France was within the reach of the rural societies of France and was equally a factor.
This situation made the mobs and the masses enter the capital city easily and create a revolutionary situation.
Effects of the revolution :
Within France, drastic changes had taken place.
Feudalism ended, the monarchy was abolished, and republicanism started.
Constitutionalism appeared for the first time.
Human rights were recognized and sanctified.
Monopolies ended, right to property was recognized.
For the first time resources of the country came within the reach of different sections of society.
Religion is subordinated to the state.
Socially, human dignity was upheld.
Slavery was banned.
Women also came to play an important role in decision-making.
External effects :
Revolutionary ideas very quickly spread to the neighboring countries, particularly Italy, Austria, Prussia, and Germany.
They became the centers of great political movements.
French nationalism inspired nationalist movements in Italy and Germany.
Ideas of socialism, for the first time, were experimented on.
A new trend called Romanticism appeared in the literature in the writings of Sautet, Sheldon, and Dryden.
The concept of Universalism also found its expression for the first time in the French Revolution.
It is when the revolutionaries declared that they would spread the ideas all over the world.

NAPOLEON'S FOREIGN POLICY (6:15 PM)

When he was defeated in the Battle of Neil, Austria formed a confederacy with the support of England, Russia, Prussia, and Sardinia.
Napoleon defeated the Austrians and forced them to sign Luneville Treaty.
The treaty confirmed all the provisions of the early Campoformio Treaty.
Napoleon formed a coalition against England with the support of Sweden and Russia.
Both withdrew as England's naval commander Nelson defeated the Swedish and Czar Paul was murdered in Russia.
Napoleon agreed to peace and signed the Treaty of Amiens with England.
It was only for bidding time.
He encouraged the forces against England in India and Europe.
In the Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon was defeated by Nelson (1804).
However, Nelson died in the battle.
In 1804, Napoleon became the emperor of France.
With the failure of Napoleon in the Battle of Trafalgar, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, all formed a coalition.
Napoleon defeated Austrians, Prussians (in the battle of Jena 1805), and Russians (in the battle of Britenfields)
The height of Napoleon's glory was in 1807- Treaty of Tilsit.
He became the master of the entire Europe, except England.
He created new kingdoms.
He declared himself King of Italy.
He appointed his brother Joseph as king of Naples, and another brother Louis became king of the Netherlands.
Napoleon created the Rhine Confederacy of 16 German states by merging all 333 German states.
He declared himself a protector.

NAPOLEON (7:24 PM)

Napoleon-man of extraordinary talents and a rare combination of valor and intellect.
Napoleon was the last of the brilliant commanders and the first of the great statesman.
He came to the limelight for the first time when he liberated the town of Toulon from the royalists.
In the revolution, Napoleon sided with the Jacobians (the radicals).
In 1795, Napoleon's Italian campaign started.
He defeated the Italians( Sardinians), entered Austria to defeat the Austrians, and forced them to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio.
As a part of the treaty, Austria vacated Italy and surrendered its Netherlands called Austrian Netherlands.
Napoleon created two republics in Italy- the Cisalpine Republic (on the Southern side of the Alps) and the Ligurian Republic.
For the first time he liberated Italy from the control of Austria and was called the 'Father of Italian Unification.'
However, in 1797, though he occupied Egypt by defeating Pasha of Egypt in the ''Battle of Pyramids'', he was finally defeated by Nelson of England in the '' Battle of Nile.''
In 1800, Napoleon captured power and became the ruler of France.
Reforms by the Napoleon:
He gave a new constitution called Consular Constitution.
It provided for agencies like the Council of States, the tribunate, the legislative assembly, and the Senate.
The first is to introduce the law (Council of States), the second (tribunate) to discuss the law, third (assembly) to decide about the law.
Senate with 80 members will make all the nominations including members of the consulate.
Napoleon as the first consulate would make all the appointments.
His word was to be final in the matters of war & peace.
The mayor as an administrator of cities, prefects for Cantons, and sub-prefects for Communes were all appointed by Napoleon.
A secretariat of ministers was provided but Napoleon took enough care to see that ministers are not united.
In other words, no collective responsibility.
Though it appears that he honored the 'separation of powers, in reality, he went against the spirit of revolution and concentrated the power in his hands as First Consulate.
In financial reforms, the Bank of Paris was founded in the 1800s, and very soon it became one of the best-managed institutions in Europe.
In education, he revealed his remarkable foresight and statesmanly qualities.
No other ruler in history gave that much importance to education as Napoleon did.
He founded primary schools and high schools called Lycees, schools for technical education, a school for studies like civil service, training schools, etc.
Norman Schools for teacher training were founded.
The University of Paris controls and coordinates the entire education system.
He was the first to recognize the importance of woman's education (''the hand that rocks the cradle is the hand that rules the world.'')
He created the Legion of Honors to be conferred upon men of letters and experts who excelled in their respective fields.
He struck a perfect balance between humanities, sciences, and arts.
This made the French education system the best in the world at that time.
Public work, Roadways, as many as 200 were completed, of that 30 linked Paris with the borders.
Irrigation systems were provided, and dams were renovated.
However, Napoleon used war prisoners as a labor force and made defeated countries Italy, Austria, and Prussia pay up public work expenditure in France. (Not a child of the revolution.)
Introduced a new judicial code called''Code De Napoleon'' called the monumental work of Napoleon's genius.
The radical ideas of the code-
(1) divorce accepted against the ideas of the Roman Catholic Religion.
(2) Father, head of the family, but no right to dispose of more than 50% of the property.
(3) Civil procedure code, penal code, and commercial codes were entirely innovations in the realm of law.
In the subject law, he extended them to all the countries he conquered.
(4) In religion, he bestowed the relationship between the French catholic church and the Roman church.
In 1801, he entered into an understanding with Pope called
However, he never hesitated to go against the pope in sanctioning the divorce and in extending theContinental system.
(He used religion for building up his public image)
He created a sense of equality by opening up public offices for talents-''Careers are open for talents.''
However, he never accepted liberty, for him French asked for equality but not liberty. (Not a child of the revolution.)
However, he beautified the city of Paris and made it a center of European passions, founded the Museum of Paris-one of the best managed even today.

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: NAPOLEON'S FOREIGN POLICY (To be Continued...)